Table 3 Energy adjusted dietary intakes of study participants across different tertiels of dietary choline, betaine and total choline and betaine intake

Energy (kcal)

1659.85 (383.49)

2329.22 (535.13)

3809.73 (1279.29)

< 0.001

< 0.00^a

1826.25 (704.35)

2515.91 (978.81)

3473.38 (1309.25)

< 0.001

< 19460.001^a

1643.90 (389.20)

2384.81 (642.68)

3764.81 (1275.96)

< 0.001

< 0.001^a

Choline (mg/d)

180.49 (33.38)

273.29 (30.94)

535.14 (318.71)

< 0.001

< 0.001^a

220.62 (75.09)

302.18 (117.06)

469.75 (346.97)

< 0.001

0.002^a

187.61 (38.56)

281.87 (61.01)

520.95 (327.35)

< 0.001

< 0.001^a

Betaine (mg/d)

87.70 (40.83)

145.87 (85.23)

231.64 (149.73)

< 0.001

< 0.001^a

65.98 (15.43)

120.49 (18.88)

276.52 (130.50)

< 0.001

< 0.001^a

72.49 (23.24)

131.37 (42.18)

261.28 (143.21)

< 0.001

< 0.001^a

Protein (g/day)

53.89 (11.59)

76.91 (13.71)

146.75 (64.34)

< 0.001

0.062

59.57 (19.71)

82.96 (26.92)

135.16 (71.18)

< 0.001

0.007^b

53.34 (11.42)

78.99 (15.33)

145.21 (65.49)

< 0.001

0.086

Fat (g/day)

55.67 (16.97)

75.00 (21.50)

136.86 (73.31)

< 0.001

0.376

65.19 (27.96)

90.46 (49.41)

112.12 (73.87)

0.001

< 0.001^a,b

56.93 (17.08)

78.17 (27.53)

131.74 (75.68)

< 0.001

0.196

CHO (g/day)

248.33 (71.34)

349.82 (97.69)

520.19 (178.15)

< 0.001

0.382

262.94 (105.91)

359.13 (141.34)

496.63 (160.16)

< 0.001

0.051

242.56 (67.73)

354.76 (108.08)

521.06 (169.85)

< 0.001

0.468

Total Fiber (g/day)

11.96 (3.56)

15.45 (5.10)

25.09 (13.11)

< 0.001

0.487

1318 (6.30)

17.35 (10.26)

22.01 (10.99)

< 0.001

0.125

11.97 (3.57)

15.87 (6.26)

24.65 (12.98)

< 0.001

0.355

SFA (g/day)

15.97 (4.63)

23.18 (6.93)

44.78 (30.22)

< 0.001

0.479

19.77 (8.89)

27.64 (14.55)

36.62 (31.72)

0.002

0.007

16.40 (5.11)

24.88 (8.66)

42.57 (31.29)

< 0.001

0.981

MUFA (g/day)

17.26 (6.29)

23.50 (8.16)

44.91 (26.36)

< 0.001

0.210

20.54 (10.09)

28.84 (16.37)

36.37 (27.09)

0.002

< 0.001^a,b

17.82 (6.33)

24.43 (10.27)

43.21 (27.07)

< 0.001

0.070

PUFA(g/day)

14.75 (6.56)

17.73 (8.08)

27.33 (19.88)

< 0.001

0.146

16.29 (8.98)

21.96 (16.78)

21.60 (14.50)

0.125

0.044^a,b

14.90 (6.53)

18.11 (9.44)

26.43 (19.64)

< 0.001

0.141

Cholesterol (mg/day)

107.77 (34.99)

150.32 (42.56)

371.78 (308.38)

< 0.001

0.410

127.54 (54.82)

175.54 (75.54)

327.28

< 0.001

0.472

106.98 (35.13)

161.29 (48.45)

360.32 (315.26)

< 0.001

0.508

Sodium (mg/day)

2164.46 (1159.97)

2829.14 (1233.60)

4116.87 (2422.48)

< 0.001

0.639

2358.54 (1135.83)

3132.64 (1647.18)

3624.03 (2430.84)

0.009

0.705

2267.61 (1168.74)

2732.41 (1268.54)

4080.90 (2444.37)

< 0.001

0.722

Iron (mg/day)

17.07 (9.14)

19.85 (5.29)

34.11 (20.00)

< 0.001

0.105

17.92 (8.42)

23.20 (19.05)

29.94 (13.16)

0.001

0.425

16.55 (9.03)

20.25 (5.60)

34.22 (19.82)

< 0.001

0.119

Magnesium (mg/day)

222.08 (40.13)

292.55 (61.42)

463.34 (211.35)

< 0.001

0.756

255.97 (74.08)

322.77 (136.72)

400.05 (216.14)

< 0.001

0.134

231.12 (45.49)

298.01 (78.24)

448.19 (219.58)

< 0.001

0.724

Zinc (mg/day)

6.13 (1.63)

8.28 (1.27)

15.81 (7.40))

< 0.001

0.065

7.33 (2.76)

9.71 (4.70)

13.21 (8.01)

< 0.001

0.262

6.28 (1.70)

8.70 (2.15)

15.18 (7.82)

< 0.001

0.546

Phosphorus (mg/day)

840.58 (213.10)

1161.90 (249.39)

2065.52 (926.56)

< 0.001

0.109

1017.93 (421.36)

1330.39 (620.42)

1724.01 (986.64)

< 0.001

0.165

867.00 (239.23)

1218.31 (348.64)

1968.70 (981.20)

< 0.001

0.924

Calcium (mg/day)

762.55 (221.64)

1112.60 (318.26)

1690.15 (767.92)

< 0.001

0.015^a

928.56 (425.27)

1145.00 (491.60)

1495.79 (774.50)

< 0.001

0.916

797.70 (268.28)

1123.80 (419.93)

1639.44 (759.05)

< 0.001

0.132

Potassium (mg/day)

2418.14 (594.46)

3233.57 (841.41)

5217.09 (2191.57)

< 0.001

0.296

2903.89 (1062.14)

3647.57 (1785.09)

4329.18 (2179.88)

0.002

0.226

2541.16 (633.21)

3296.87 (1081.96)

5023.45 (2290.79)

< 0.001

0.881

Copper (mg/day)

2.29 (0.73)

2.78 (0.94)

4.62 (2.86)

< 0.001

0.078

2.51 (0.82)

2.98 (1.39)

4.21 (2.92)

< 0.001

0.366

2.35 (0.74)

2.83 (1.04)

4.51 (2.91)

< 0.001

0.149

Manganese (mg/day)

2.69 (0.55)

3.30 (0.90)

4.68 (1.90)

< 0.001

0.931

2.92 (0.71)

3.42 (1.32)

4.34 (1.89)

< 0.001

0.868

2.76 (0.61)

3.33 (0.98)

4.57 (1.95)

< 0.001

0.825

Selenium (mg/day)

0.03 (0.01)

0.05 (0.04)

0.08 (0.06)

< 0.001

0.929

0.03 (0.01)

0.05 (0.02)

0.08 (0.07)

< 0.001

0.172

0.0.03 (0.01)

0.05 (0.02)

0.08 (0.07)

< 0.001

0.738

Fluorine (mg/day)

7350.58 (6449.84)

10402.47 (9419.36)

8917.95 (8091.78)

0.241

0.057

8348.76 (6825.60)

8540.42 (8620.91)

9806.17 (8857.45)

0.682

0.390

8226.08 (6979.17)

9491.05 (9490.82)

9174.36 (7864.30)

0.772

0.438

Chromium (mg/day)

0.06 (0.03)

0.06 (0.04)

0.08 (0.05)

0.039

0.629

0.06 (0.03)

0.06 (0.04)

0.08 0.05

0.009

0.120

0.06 (0.03)

0.06 (0.04)

0.08 (0.05)

0.029

0.466

Vitamin C (mg/day)

106.87 (46.85)

144.64 (76.33)

211.48 (123.92)

< 0.001

0.811

127.85 (59.49)

162.74 (115.56)

172.91 (105.29)

0.095

0.137

115.46 (46.56)

140.23 (73.41)

207.82 (130.34)

< 0.001

0.431

VitaminB1 (mg/day)

1.30 (0.37)

1.82 (0.60)

2.7859 (1.11668)

< 0.001

0.799

1.30 (0.46)

1.75 (0.44)

2.85 (1.09)

< 0.001

< 0.001^a,b

1.26 (0.35)

1.79 (0.56)

2.86 (1.05)

< 0.001

0.178

VitaminB2 (mg/day)

1.08 (0.32)

1.60 (0.46)

2.98 (1.66)

< 0.001

0.267

1.35 (0.65)

1.79 (0.83)

2.52 (1.79)

< 0.001

0.596

1.12 (0.39)

1.67 (0.58)

2.86 (1.71)

< 0.001

0.875

VitaminB3 (mg/day)

15.01 (3.47)

21.90 (5.99)

37.16 (16.17)

< 0.001

0.639

15.37 (4.84)

22.19 (6.46)

36.53 (16.39)

< 0.001

< 0.001^{a, b}

14.61 (3.28)

21.53 (5.20)

37.94 (15.54)

< 0.001

0.044^b

VitaminB6 (mg/day)

0.94 (0.29)

1.28 (0.40)

2.22 (1.18)

< 0.001

0.846

1.09 (0.46)

1.50 (0.87)

1.85 (1.13)

0.001

0.208

0.96 (0.29)

1.31 (0.43)

2.17 (1.21)

< 0.001

0.628

VitaminB9 (µg/day)

192.46 (50.72)

257.53 (69.75)

426.89

< 0.001

0.841

218.78 (76.56)

299.82 (146.93)

358.92 (208.72)

< 0.001

0.364

198.56 (53.05)

263.52 (79.62)

413.87 (217.23)

< 0.001

0.727

VitaminB12 (µg/day)

3.35 (1.53)

5.18 (2.45)

15.32 (24.45)

< 0.001

0.094

4.33 (2.58)

5.80 (3.20)

13.95 (24.74).

0.009

0.379

3.28 (1.34)

5.73 (2.89)

14.80 (24.62)

0.001

0.098

VitaminB5 (mg/day)

3.91 (1.00)

5.36 (1.27)

9.78 (5.09)

< 0.001

0.596

4.80 (2.16)

6.20 (3.51)

8.08 (5.01)

0.001

0.127

4.02 (1.10)

5.65 (1.83)

9.3 (5.30)

< 0.001

0.475

VitaminB8 (mg/day)

14.28 (4.93)

18.84 (7.35)

27.28 (11.41)

< 0.001

0.043^a

16.81 (7.65)

20.81 (8.19)

22.84 (12.37)

0.019

0.371

15.06 (6.12)

19.67 (7.74)

25.48 (12.02)

< 0.001

0.731

Vitamin A (RAE/day)

806.61 (405.91)

1080.66 (678.02)

2418.41 (2234.99)

< 0.001

0.444

979.98 (579.36)

1219.61 (827.64).

2110.32 (2322.94)

0.002

0.321

833.60 (407.69)

1096.98 (642.50)

2368.61 (2279.56)

< 0.001

0.278

Vitamin D (µg/day)

1.31 (0.94)

1.93 (1.51)

3.21 (3.20)

< 0.001

0.037^a

1.79 (1.63)

2.16 (1.88)

2.51 (2.98)

0.356

0.881

1.50 (1.21)

1.98 (1.77)

2.96 (3.11)

0.012

0.535

Vitamin K (µg/day)

168.54 (78.52)

232.93 (122.07)

305.61 (187.45)

< 0.001

0.167

188.90 (91.08)

221.52 (114.02)

297.16 (195.50)

0.003

0.205

181.70 (90.94)

221.66 (123.84)

306.90 (183.90)

< 0.001

0.352

Vitamin E (mg/day)

2.24 (0.57)

2.92 (0.98)

4.27 (1.41)

< 0.001

0.567

2.43 (0.87)

3.15 (1.08)

3.85 (1.58)

< 0.001

0.734

2.30 (0.68)

2.96 (0.97)

4.14 (1.51)

< 0.001

0.900